HYPOTHESIS
I would
like to say my word to make the cleavage between the known and the unknown of
dark matter. Through Bose Einstein Condensate system (BECs) Phase (6), I conclude that Dark matter is represented
in (3) forms (Majorana fermions, Glueballs and Phosphorus).
In the photographs bellow we can see Majorana fermions and
Glueballs generated within the system (BECs) as huge condensate matter.
Majorana fermions and Glue balls
Majorana fermions and Glue balls
Majorana fermions and Glue balls under the High Temperature Superconductor
Definition I
1- Dark matter
According to consensus among cosmologists, dark matter is composed
primarily of a new, not yet characterized, type of subatomic particle. The
search for this particle, by a variety of means, is one of the major efforts
in particle physics today.
Although the existence of dark matter is generally accepted by the
mainstream scientific community, several alternative theories have been
proposed to try to explain the anomalies for which dark matter is intended to
account.
2- Dark Matter Detection
2-1 Direct Detection Experiments
Direct detection experiments typically operate in deep underground
laboratories to reduce the background from cosmic rays. These include:
the Soudan mine; the SNOLAB underground laboratory at Sudbury,
Ontario (Canada); the Gran Sasso National Laboratory (Italy);
the Canfranc Underground Laboratory (Spain); the Boulby
Underground Laboratory(UK); and the Deep Underground Science and
Engineering Laboratory, South Dakota (US).
The majority of present experiments use one of two detector
technologies: cryogenic detectors, operating at temperatures below 100mK,
detect the heat produced when a particle hits an atom in
a crystal absorber such as germanium. Noble
liquid detectors detect the flash of scintillation light
produced by a particle collision in liquid xenon or argon.
Cryogenic detector experiments include: CDMS, CRESST, EDELWEISS, and
EURECA. Noble liquid experiments include ZEPLIN, XENON, DEAP, ArDM, WARP and LUX.
Both of these detector techniques are capable of distinguishing background
particles which scatter off electrons, from dark matter particles which scatter
off nuclei. Other experiments include SIMPLE and PICASSO.
The DAMA/NaI, DAMA/LIBRA experiments have detected
an annual modulation in the event rate, which they claim is due to dark
matter particles. (As the Earth orbits the Sun, the velocity of the detector
relative to the dark matter halo will vary by a small amount depending on the
time of year). This claim is so far unconfirmed and difficult to reconcile with
the negative results of other experiments assuming that the WIMP scenario is
correct.
Directional detection of dark matter is a search strategy based on
the motion of the Solar System around the galactic centre.
By using a low pressure TPC, it is possible to access
information on recoiling tracks (3D reconstruction if possible) and to
constrain the WIMP-nucleus kinematics. WIMPs coming from the direction in which
the Sun is travelling (roughly in the direction of the Cygnus constellation)
may then be separated from background noise, which should be isotropic.
Directional dark matter experiments include DMTPC, DRIFT, Newage and
MIMAC.
On 17 December 2009 CDMS researchers reported two possible WIMP
candidate events. They estimate that the probability that these events are due
to a known background (neutrons or misidentified beta or gamma events) is 23%,
and conclude "this analysis cannot be interpreted as significant evidence
for WIMP interactions, but we cannot reject either event as signal."
More recently, on 4 September 2011, researchers using the CRESST detectors
presented evidence of 67 collisions occurring in detector crystals from
sub-atomic particles, calculating there is a less than 1 in 10,000 chance that
all were caused by known sources of interference or contamination. It is quite
possible then that many of these collisions were caused by WIMPs, and/or other
unknown particles.
2-2 Indirect Detection Experiments
Indirect detection experiments search for the products of WIMP
annihilation. If WIMPs are Majorana particles (the particle and
antiparticle are the same) then two WIMPs colliding
could annihilate to produce gamma rays or
particle-antiparticle pairs. This could produce a significant number of gamma rays,
antiprotons or positrons in the galactic halo. The detection of such
a signal is not conclusive evidence for dark matter, as the production of gamma
rays from other sources is not fully understood.
The EGRET gamma ray telescope observed more gamma rays
than expected from the Milky Way, but scientists concluded that this was most
likely due to an error in estimates of the telescope's
sensitivity. The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, launched June 11,
2008, is searching for gamma ray events from dark matter annihilation.
At higher energies, ground-based gamma-ray telescopes have
set limits on the annihilation of dark matter in dwarf spheroidal
galaxies and in clusters of galaxies.
The PAMELA experiment (launched 2006) has detected a
larger number of positrons than expected. These extra positrons could be
produced by dark matter annihilation, but may also come from pulsars. No
excess of anti-protons has been observed.
A few of the WIMPs passing through the Sun
or Earth may scatter off atoms and lose energy. This way a large
population of WIMPs may accumulate at the centre of these bodies, increasing
the chance that two will collide and annihilate. This could produce a
distinctive signal in the form of high-energy neutrinos originating
from the centre of the Sun or Earth. It is generally considered that the
detection of such a signal would be the strongest indirect proof of WIMP dark
matter. High-energy neutrino telescopes such as AMANDA, IceCube and ANTARES are
searching for this signal.
WIMP annihilation from the Milky Way Galaxy as a whole may also be
detected in the form of various annihilation products. The Galactic
center is a particularly good place to look because the density of dark
matter may be very high there.
Phosphorus is Dark Matter
Phosphorus, is a chemical element with
symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent non-metal of
the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always present in its
maximally oxidised state, as inorganic phosphate rocks. Elemental
phosphorus exists in two major forms white phosphorus and red
phosphorus but due to its high reactivity, phosphorus is never found as a free
element on Earth.
Phosphorus is essential for most life. As phosphate, it is a
component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and also
the phospholipids that form all cell membranes. Demonstrating the
link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was historically first
isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate
source. Phosphate minerals are fossils. Low phosphate levels are an important
limit to growth in some aquatic systems. The chief commercial use of phosphorus
compounds for production of fertilisers is due to the need to replace
the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil.
Definition II
1- Majorana Fermion, also referred to as a majorana particle, or simply, a majorana,
is a fermionn that is its own antiparticle. The term is
sometimes used in opposition to Dirac fermion, which describes particles
that differ from their antiparticles. It is common that boson (such
as the photon) are their own antiparticle. It is also quite common that
fermions can be their own antiparticle, such as the fermionic quasiparticles in
spin-singlet superconductors (where the
quasiparticles/Majorana-fermions carry spin-1/2) and in superconductors with
spin-orbital coupling, such as iridium, (where the
quasiparticles/Majorana-fermions do not carry well defined spins).
2- In particle physics, a fermion (a name coined by Paul Dirac
from the surname of Enrico Fermi) is any particle characterized
by Fermi–Dirac statistics and following the Pauli Exclusion Principle;
fermions include all quarks and leptons, as well as
any composite particle made of an odd number of these, such
as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei. Fermions
contrast with bosons which obey Bose–Einstein statistics.
A fermion can be an elementary particle, such as
the electron; or it can be a composite particle, such as the proton.
The spin-statistics theorem holds that, in any
reasonable relativistic quantum field theory, particles with integer spin are bosons,
while particles with half-integer spin are fermions.
In contrast to bosons, only one fermion can occupy a
particular quantum state at any given time. If more than one fermion
occupies the same physical space, at least one property of each fermion, such
as its spin, must be different. Fermions are usually associated
with matter, whereas bosons are generally force
carrier particles; although in the current state of particle physics the
distinction between the two concepts is unclear.
The Standard Model recognizes two types of elementary
fermions: quarks and leptons. In all, the model distinguishes 24 different
fermions: 6 quarks and 6 leptons, each with a corresponding anti-particle.
Composite fermions, such as protons and neutrons, are key
building blocks of matter. Weakly interacting fermions can also display bosonic
behavior under extreme conditions, such as in superconductivity.
Definition III
1-Glueball
Theoretical calculations show that glueballs should exist at
energy ranges accessible with current collider technology. However,
due to the aforementioned difficulty, they have (as of 2011) so far not been
observed and identified with certainty.
2- Gluons
Since quarks make up the baryons and the mesons,
and the strong interaction takes place between baryons
and mesons, one could say that the color force is the source of the strong
interaction, or that the strong interaction is like a residual color force that
extends beyond the baryons, for example when protons and neutrons are
bound together in a nucleus.
In technical terms, they are vector gauge
bosons that mediate strong
interactions of quarks in quantum
chromodynamics (QCD). Unlike the electrically
neutral photon of quantum electrodynamics (QED), gluons
themselves carry color charge and therefore participate in the strong
interaction in addition to mediating it, making QCD significantly harder to
analyze than QED.
3- Experiment and Observation
In summer 1979 at higher energies at the electron-positron collider PETRA (DESY) again three-jet
topologies were observed, now interpreted as qq gluon bremsstrahlung, now clearly visible, by TASSO, MARK-J and PLUTO
experiments (later in 1980 also by JADE). The spin 1 of the gluon was
confirmed in 1980 by TASSO and PLUTO experiments (see also
the review). In 1991 a subsequent experiment at the LEP storage ring
at CERN again confirmed this result.
The gluons play an important role in the elementary strong
interactions between quarks and gluons, described by QCD and studied
particularly at the electron-proton collider HERA at DESY. The number
and momentum distribution of the gluons in the proton (gluon
density) have been measured by two experiments, H1 and ZEUS, in
the years 1996 till today (2012). The gluon contribution to the proton spin has
been studied by the HERMES experiment at HERA. The gluon
density in the photon (when behaving hadronically) has also been
measured.
Color confinement is verified by the failure of free
quark searches (searches of fractional charges). Quarks are
normally produced in pairs (quark + antiquark) to compensate the
quantum color and flavor numbers; however at Fermilab single
production of top quarks has been shown. No glueball has
been demonstrated.
Deconfinement was claimed in 2000
at CERN SPS in heavy-ion collisions, and it implies a new
state of matter: quark-gluon plasma, less interacting than in
the nucleus, almost as in a liquid. It was found at the Relativistic
Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven in the years 2004–2010 by four
contemporaneous experiments. A quark-gluon plasma state has been
confirmed at the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) by the three
experiments ALICE, ATLAS and CMS in 2010.
